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Author line voltage and 3-phase system in france
Martin Krehl

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

Hi!
I need to know the french line-voltage in a typical urban area (privat
home or small lab). What kind of AC-system do they have? Three phases
and neutral? 230V between phases and neutral and 400V between the
phases? Or is it 220/230V between the phases and 127/133V between
phase and neutral?
Do they regulary have a PE wire and a fault current trip inside their
breaker boxes?

Thanks for listening! All answeres are very much appreciated.

Martin

Martin.Krehl@ion-tof.com
Paul E. Bennett

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

Martin Krehl wrote:
quote:

> Hi!
> I need to know the french line-voltage in a typical urban area (privat
> home or small lab). What kind of AC-system do they have? Three phases
> and neutral? 230V between phases and neutral and 400V between the
> phases? Or is it 220/230V between the phases and 127/133V between
> phase and neutral?
> Do they regulary have a PE wire and a fault current trip inside their
> breaker boxes?
>
> Thanks for listening! All answeres are very much appreciated.


As the whole of the main European countries have now harmonised the French,
UK and German line voltages are now all supposed to be the same. See the
page http://users.metro2000.net/~purwinc/seec2_2.htm for information on
this.

--
********************************************************************
Paul E. Bennett ....................<email://peb@amleth.demon.co.uk>
Forth based HIDECS Consultancy .....<http://www.amleth.demon.co.uk/>
Mob: +44 (0)7811-639972
Tel: +44 (0)1235-811095
Going Forth Safely ....EBA. http://www.electric-boat-association.org.uk/
********************************************************************
phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Fri, 04 Mar 2005 19:21:36 +0000 Paul E. Bennett <peb@amleth.demon.co.uk> wrote:
| Martin Krehl wrote:
|
|> Hi!
|> I need to know the french line-voltage in a typical urban area (privat
|> home or small lab). What kind of AC-system do they have? Three phases
|> and neutral? 230V between phases and neutral and 400V between the
|> phases? Or is it 220/230V between the phases and 127/133V between
|> phase and neutral?
|> Do they regulary have a PE wire and a fault current trip inside their
|> breaker boxes?
|>
|> Thanks for listening! All answeres are very much appreciated.
|
| As the whole of the main European countries have now harmonised the French,
| UK and German line voltages are now all supposed to be the same. See the
| page http://users.metro2000.net/~purwinc/seec2_2.htm for information on
| this.

Now if they would just harmonize the plugs and outlets. The big question
would be which to use. IMHO, the French one is one of the more stupid. If
it were my vote (it isn't, as I'm not even in Europe), I go with the Schuko.
Of course I don't expect the Brits to ever accept that. Maybe actually
using the same IEC ones used for detachable appliance cords might be a
reasonably politically neutral choice. At least they are also shrouded
for some degree of safety (unlike the USA plugs).

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Peter

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Fri, 04 Mar 2005 19:21:36 +0000, "Paul E. Bennett"
<peb@amleth.demon.co.uk> wrote:
quote:

>Martin Krehl wrote:
>
>
>As the whole of the main European countries have now harmonised the French,
>UK and German line voltages are now all supposed to be the same. See the
>page http://users.metro2000.net/~purwinc/seec2_2.htm for information on
>this.
>

230v phase to neutral and 400v between phases. AFAIK Continental
Europe was 220v, and areas may still be that rather than 230v. UK
(and Australia) are 240v (415v between phases) and seem to be
resisting easing voltage down to 230v. There may be non-standard
pockets (eg it was suggested parts of Belgium had 230v between phases
and and used that for 230v appliances - this could be wrong though).

phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Fri, 04 Mar 2005 19:21:36 +0000 Paul E. Bennett <peb@amleth.demon.co.uk> wrote:
| Martin Krehl wrote:
|
|> Hi!
|> I need to know the french line-voltage in a typical urban area (privat
|> home or small lab). What kind of AC-system do they have? Three phases
|> and neutral? 230V between phases and neutral and 400V between the
|> phases? Or is it 220/230V between the phases and 127/133V between
|> phase and neutral?
|> Do they regulary have a PE wire and a fault current trip inside their
|> breaker boxes?
|>
|> Thanks for listening! All answeres are very much appreciated.
|
| As the whole of the main European countries have now harmonised the French,
| UK and German line voltages are now all supposed to be the same. See the
| page http://users.metro2000.net/~purwinc/seec2_2.htm for information on
| this.

That page needs several links to be updated.

These are good starting points for some info:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_o...s_&_frequencies
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domest...ugs_%26_sockets

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Roy Q.T.

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm


I've always felt attracted to France };-)

I find all the differences in the EU electrical systems very
interesting, if they asked for rcd's in every breaker panel here, there
wouldn't seem to be any need for gfci receptacles.

I always heard and have sees the Foreign Electrical Adapters one who is
planning on taking personal electrical gadgets to Europe needs, much of
our US stuff has a several voltages slide wheel or switch in the back
somewhere that handles the voltage difference.

differences are what makes the world such a cool place to travel around.

i don't wonder if they have non switchable 220vac gadgets because I
found a 110-220vac converter that someone with European gadgets could
use here in North America to power their 220vac shaver/ massager or
whatever };-)

I've kept it to test 220vac from my 120vac receptacles (which actually
is reading 220v as opposed to 110/118 /125 I've read in other places)
BTW in the US every house & apartment has at least one 220 vac outlet. i
suspect it'll go up to 125vac in places where most wiring and electrical
equipment is totally new or recent.

My meter flashes 121 at times, not the swing to 118 I've read in old
system places.

areola' i mean, orevua' };-) =AEoy

phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Sat, 5 Mar 2005 07:12:05 -0500 Roy Q.T. <ROYKEY@webtv.net> wrote:

| I've always felt attracted to France };-)
|
| I find all the differences in the EU electrical systems very
| interesting, if they asked for rcd's in every breaker panel here, there
| wouldn't seem to be any need for gfci receptacles.
|
| I always heard and have sees the Foreign Electrical Adapters one who is
| planning on taking personal electrical gadgets to Europe needs, much of
| our US stuff has a several voltages slide wheel or switch in the back
| somewhere that handles the voltage difference.
|
| differences are what makes the world such a cool place to travel around.
|
| i don't wonder if they have non switchable 220vac gadgets because I
| found a 110-220vac converter that someone with European gadgets could
| use here in North America to power their 220vac shaver/ massager or
| whatever };-)

What about a converter for one of those 4000 W cookers?


| I've kept it to test 220vac from my 120vac receptacles (which actually
| is reading 220v as opposed to 110/118 /125 I've read in other places)
| BTW in the US every house & apartment has at least one 220 vac outlet. i
| suspect it'll go up to 125vac in places where most wiring and electrical
| equipment is totally new or recent.

Almost always they are dedicated to a specific appliance. I have seen a
few where window air conditioners were once used and have been replaced
by central air conditioning, but the old NEMA 6-15R is still there.

I plan to have a number of NEMA 6-20R outlets around my new house. One
never knows when something big is needed in an odd location, and I don't
want to be running big long extension cords around for that.


| My meter flashes 121 at times, not the swing to 118 I've read in old
| system places.

Take your meter with you on your vacation to Mexico.

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Sat, 05 Mar 2005 09:49:20 GMT Peter <peterwn@parazzdise.net.nz> wrote:
| On Fri, 04 Mar 2005 19:21:36 +0000, "Paul E. Bennett"
| <peb@amleth.demon.co.uk> wrote:
|>As the whole of the main European countries have now harmonised the French,
|>UK and German line voltages are now all supposed to be the same. See the
|>page http://users.metro2000.net/~purwinc/seec2_2.htm for information on
|>this.
|>
| 230v phase to neutral and 400v between phases. AFAIK Continental
| Europe was 220v, and areas may still be that rather than 230v. UK
| (and Australia) are 240v (415v between phases) and seem to be
| resisting easing voltage down to 230v. There may be non-standard
| pockets (eg it was suggested parts of Belgium had 230v between phases
| and and used that for 230v appliances - this could be wrong though).

I think the whole idea for now is to make sure applianace manufacturers
design for the full 220V to 240V range, centered around 230V. That way
things work reasonably well, and definitely safely, everywhere. Then I
would expect they eventually will require tight low end tolerance on the
220V services and tight high end tolerance on the 240V services, and 230V
for new installations. All new transformers would be designed for 230V
out and whatever MV primary is used in the various areas perhaps by means
of multiple taps. I'll be curious how long it takes for all these things
to happen. I'd give it 20 years but expect eventually 90% will be 230V.

Being as safety is a big issue, I'm surprised they haven't mandated a
single type of receptacle for EU, yet, to avoid all those adapters.
Maybe the Europeans don't travel around within EU that much?

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dave D

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm


<phil-news-nospam@ipal.net> wrote in message
news:d0bsah41snc@news4.newsguy.com...
quote:

> On Fri, 04 Mar 2005 19:21:36 +0000 Paul E. Bennett

<peb@amleth.demon.co.uk> wrote:
quote:

> | Martin Krehl wrote:


<snip>
quote:

>
> Now if they would just harmonize the plugs and outlets. The big question
> would be which to use. IMHO, the French one is one of the more stupid.

If
quote:

> it were my vote (it isn't, as I'm not even in Europe), I go with the

Schuko.
quote:

> Of course I don't expect the Brits to ever accept that.


Too right. Our system is one of the safest in the world, why should we
spend millions changing what already works perfectly? Fused, easy to wire
plugs with shrouded, touch-proof pins, ELCBs on every new circuit, and plugs
which don't have the mains cable sticking out at 90 degrees to the wall!

Dave


Peter

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On 5 Mar 2005 19:41:22 GMT, phil-news-nospam@ipal.net wrote:

quote:

>Being as safety is a big issue, I'm surprised they haven't mandated a
>single type of receptacle for EU, yet, to avoid all those adapters.
>Maybe the Europeans don't travel around within EU that much?
>

Simple, adopt the Chinese / Australian / New Zealand 10amp flat pin
receptacle as standard - will be a 'neutral' choice for Europe. This
will probably become the dominant type like it or not as China gets
more and more into mainstream commerce. The Chinese one has the earth
pin at the top compared with at the botton for Austalia / NZ (ie
rorated 180 degrees) for reasons of superstition (AFAIK).
Roy Q.T.

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm



On Sat, Mar 5, 2005, 7:34pm (EST+5) philadendrum-news-nospam@ipal.net
wrote:

Almost always they are dedicated to a specific appliance. I have seen a
few where window air conditioners were once used and have been replaced
by central air conditioning, but the old NEMA 6-15R is still there.
I plan to have a number of NEMA 6-20R outlets around my new house. One
never knows when something big is needed in an odd location, and I don't
want to be running big long extension cords around for that.

Take your meter with you on your vacation to Mexico.

~> I am not going to Mejico, but the PRetty girls from the Carribean
seem so Enchanting ;-)

phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Sat, 5 Mar 2005 22:16:31 -0000 Dave D <dave-d@dave-d.com> wrote:

|> Now if they would just harmonize the plugs and outlets. The big question
|> would be which to use. IMHO, the French one is one of the more stupid.
| If
|> it were my vote (it isn't, as I'm not even in Europe), I go with the
| Schuko.
|> Of course I don't expect the Brits to ever accept that.
|
| Too right. Our system is one of the safest in the world, why should we
| spend millions changing what already works perfectly? Fused, easy to wire
| plugs with shrouded, touch-proof pins, ELCBs on every new circuit, and plugs
| which don't have the mains cable sticking out at 90 degrees to the wall!

Granted, it is a safer system. We do have flat plugs in the US, but not
enough of them. Where my concern was is people who travel have to use an
adaptor of some sort, which starts to make it less safe. If EC would
mandate one socket/plug type, it would begin the path to eliminating the
need for adapters. As I understand it now, some semi-compatibility does
already exist between the French and German sockets where one plug type
can fit both while being shrouded and contacing ground first. Making that
be the required plug might be a start. But there are still some other
perhaps incompatible sockets, too (Britain, Denmark, Italy).

I'd like to see some moves towards increasing the safety in the US along
some of these lines. The shroud would be a good start.

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Sun, 06 Mar 2005 09:51:14 GMT Peter <peterwn@parazzdise.net.nz> wrote:

| On 5 Mar 2005 19:41:22 GMT, phil-news-nospam@ipal.net wrote:
|
|
|>Being as safety is a big issue, I'm surprised they haven't mandated a
|>single type of receptacle for EU, yet, to avoid all those adapters.
|>Maybe the Europeans don't travel around within EU that much?
|>
| Simple, adopt the Chinese / Australian / New Zealand 10amp flat pin
| receptacle as standard - will be a 'neutral' choice for Europe. This
| will probably become the dominant type like it or not as China gets
| more and more into mainstream commerce. The Chinese one has the earth
| pin at the top compared with at the botton for Austalia / NZ (ie
| rorated 180 degrees) for reasons of superstition (AFAIK).

That's often a debate source in the US ... should the ground pin be up
or down. I see about 75% down and 25% up in installations. Some fo that
may be influenced by the manufacturers who emboss their logos on the front
in a particular orientation. Leviton, probably the largest mainstream
brand, displays their products mostly ground pin down. Hubbell, another
big brand, goes the other way.

My brother's house was wired with ground pin up, and he had never seen
such a thing before. When the subject was brought up once, I then said
that having the ground pin up reduces the chance of something metal that
falls on the partially pulled out plug from making a full short. Then
he accepted it as a good idea. It's the way I will do it in my house
with a few exceptions.

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Roy Q.T.

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm



Date: Sun, Mar 6, 2005, 8:57pm (EST+5) From: phil-news-nospam@ipal.net
On Sun, 06 Mar 2005 09:51:14 GMT Peter <peterwn@parazzdise.net.nz>
wrote:
| On 5 Mar 2005 19:41:22 GMT, phil-news-nospam@ipal.net wrote:

<snip<

That's often a debate source in the US ... should the ground pin be up
or down. I see about 75% down and 25% up in installations. Some fo that
may be influenced by the manufacturers who emboss their logos on the
front in a particular orientation. Leviton, probably the largest
mainstream brand, displays their products mostly ground pin down.
Hubbell, another big brand, goes the other way.
My brother's house was wired with ground pin up, and he had never seen
such a thing before. When the subject was brought up once, I then said
that having the ground pin up reduces the chance of something metal that
falls on the partially pulled out plug from making a full short. Then he
accepted it as a good idea. It's the way I will do it in my house with a
few exceptions.
--
I saw it to a few years backin an construction & I been installing mine
ground Pin Up ever since, I once lost a chain because it caught between
the two plug blades, had i the ground pin up on the outlet it would have
just slid off the side to the floor.,
Everyone that asks me why i install them that Odd looking way agrees and
likes the safer approach.

Not 1 person would think it's trivial.,
it should be in the NEC .. if it is not.

=AEoy

Trevor Barton

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Sun, 06 Mar 2005 09:51:14 GMT, Peter wrote:
quote:

> On 5 Mar 2005 19:41:22 GMT, phil-news-nospam@ipal.net wrote:
>
>
> Simple, adopt the Chinese / Australian / New Zealand 10amp flat pin
> receptacle as standard - will be a 'neutral' choice for Europe. This
> will probably become the dominant type like it or not as China gets
> more and more into mainstream commerce. The Chinese one has the earth
> pin at the top compared with at the botton for Austalia / NZ (ie
> rorated 180 degrees) for reasons of superstition (AFAIK).


No no no. Those stupid little pins get hot pulling 10A out of a
circuit, let alone the 13A we can pull here in the UK!

--
Trevor Barton
phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

On Sun, 6 Mar 2005 17:05:13 -0500 Roy Q.T. <ROYKEY@webtv.net> wrote:

| I saw it to a few years backin an construction & I been installing mine
| ground Pin Up ever since, I once lost a chain because it caught between
| the two plug blades, had i the ground pin up on the outlet it would have
| just slid off the side to the floor.,
| Everyone that asks me why i install them that Odd looking way agrees and
| likes the safer approach.
|
| Not 1 person would think it's trivial.,
| it should be in the NEC .. if it is not.

I wouldn't go so far as to require it in the NEC (I would require a bunch
of other things, first). Perhaps some people just get used to having a
face look back at them when they plug something in. If I was going to
require anything, maybe I'd require a Schuko :-)

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
phil-news-nospam@ipal.net

2005-06-17, 11:28 pm

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On 07 Mar 2005 12:02:34 GMT Trevor Barton <tmb@xisotek.co.uk> wrote:

| On Sun, 06 Mar 2005 09:51:14 GMT, Peter wrote:
|> On 5 Mar 2005 19:41:22 GMT, phil-news-nospam@ipal.net wrote:
|>
|>
|>>Being as safety is a big issue, I'm surprised they haven't mandated a
|>>single type of receptacle for EU, yet, to avoid all those adapters.
|>>Maybe the Europeans don't travel around within EU that much?
|>>
|> Simple, adopt the Chinese / Australian / New Zealand 10amp flat pin
|> receptacle as standard - will be a 'neutral' choice for Europe. This
|> will probably become the dominant type like it or not as China gets
|> more and more into mainstream commerce. The Chinese one has the earth
|> pin at the top compared with at the botton for Austalia / NZ (ie
|> rorated 180 degrees) for reasons of superstition (AFAIK).
|
| No no no. Those stupid little pins get hot pulling 10A out of a
| circuit, let alone the 13A we can pull here in the UK!

There's similar amount of cross section between the US plug pins and the
common continental plug pins like in the Schuko. I will admit that the
UK plug is heftier. That thing could easily do 30 amps. But isn't that
your standard ring circuit capacity, anyway? Maybe what they had in mind
with that design was an extra level of safety for people doing stupid
things.

Go with an IEC 60309

--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Phil Howard KA9WGN | http://linuxhomepage.com/ http://ham.org/ |
| (first name) at ipal.net | http://phil.ipal.org/ http://ka9wgn.ham.org/ |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Paul E. Bennett

2005-06-17, 11:29 pm

phil-news-nospam@ipal.net wrote:
quote:

> There's similar amount of cross section between the US plug pins and the
> common continental plug pins like in the Schuko. I will admit that the
> UK plug is heftier. That thing could easily do 30 amps. But isn't that
> your standard ring circuit capacity, anyway? Maybe what they had in mind
> with that design was an extra level of safety for people doing stupid
> things.


The UK ring mains are 30A to supply a number of 13A sockets, with some
diversity factor, within a specified area.

Whilst the UK 13A plug could handle 30A for a while it is definitely not
safe to run at this level continuously. To do so would lead to massive
charring of the socket and plug plastic and eventually lead to a fire.
Personnaly, I would not consider loading any of the cheaper 13A sockets or
plugs to anything like the rated capacity.

--
********************************************************************
Paul E. Bennett ....................<email://peb@amleth.demon.co.uk>
Forth based HIDECS Consultancy .....<http://www.amleth.demon.co.uk/>
Mob: +44 (0)7811-639972
Tel: +44 (0)1235-811095
Going Forth Safely ....EBA. http://www.electric-boat-association.org.uk/
********************************************************************
Andrew Gabriel

2005-06-17, 11:29 pm

In article <c0133708.0503040722.78c7fcb@posting.google.com>,
Martin.Krehl@ion-tof.com (Martin Krehl) writes:
quote:

> Hi!
> I need to know the french line-voltage in a typical urban area (privat
> home or small lab). What kind of AC-system do they have? Three phases
> and neutral? 230V between phases and neutral and 400V between the
> phases? Or is it 220/230V between the phases and 127/133V between
> phase and neutral?


Street distribution is 3-phase and Neutral, 220V/380V in reality,
230V/400V in theory (EU harmonisation).

A small home or office will normally get just a single phase and
neutral, i.e. 220V supply. I don't know what their max single
phase current is before you have to go to 3-phase. This varies in
each EU country, e.g. 100A in UK, but only 20A in some Scandanavian
countries, where 3-phase supply to the home is the norm. I suspect
France is similar to the UK -- certainly single phase supplies of
up to 60A exist.
quote:

> Do they regulary have a PE wire and a fault current trip inside their
> breaker boxes?


I don't claim to know all the earthing arrangements in use in
France, but those I have seen, it seems to be the consumer's
responsibility to provide the earth. (In the UK, the supply
company will normally provide an earth terminal, except for old
rural supplies, although the consumer does not have to use it;
they can provide their own earth instead.) I've also heard that
some French distribution systems are IT (none of the supply
conductors are tied to earth, except through a high impedance).

All French installations I've seen have an overcurrent trip and
a 500mA RCD (GFCI) provided by the supplier. Newer ones have
rather fancy digital meters which readout just about everything
(voltage, current, percentage max current, power, power factor,
phase shift, kWhrs regular, kWhrs low rate, and probably more I
can't think of now). They are read remotely, and can be continually
monitored remotely to provide power usage information to the supplier.
Supplier does remote switching between regular and cheap rate,
and meter provides an output for switching on stored heating loads
accordingly when low rate is in effect.
quote:

> Thanks for listening! All answeres are very much appreciated.


--
Andrew Gabriel
Tomi Holger Engdahl

2005-06-17, 11:29 pm

andrew@cucumber.demon.co.uk (Andrew Gabriel) writes:
quote:

> In article <c0133708.0503040722.78c7fcb@posting.google.com>,
> Martin.Krehl@ion-tof.com (Martin Krehl) writes:
>
> Street distribution is 3-phase and Neutral, 220V/380V in reality,
> 230V/400V in theory (EU harmonisation).
>
> A small home or office will normally get just a single phase and
> neutral, i.e. 220V supply. I don't know what their max single
> phase current is before you have to go to 3-phase. This varies in
> each EU country, e.g. 100A in UK, but only 20A in some Scandanavian
> countries, where 3-phase supply to the home is the norm. I suspect
> France is similar to the UK -- certainly single phase supplies of
> up to 60A exist.


In Finland three phase to home is very typical arrangement.
A typical single home house most often gets something like 3x25A
three phase power 230V/400V.

Apartment houses get three phase power. Each apartment then
either receives single phase power (older installations,
smaller apartments etc..) or three phase power.
I have quite often seen for example around 30-40A single phase
feed in this kind of apartments if I remember right.

--
Tomi Engdahl (http://www.iki.fi/then/)
Take a look at my electronics web links and documents at
http://www.epanorama.net/
LinkBot





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